Malleus-Maleficarum

The Accuser's Vanishing Risk

Every legal tradition Anglo-American law descends from imposed personal risk on the actors who generated adjudicatory outputs — the accuser, the witness, the judge. The procedural revolution that began under Innocent III in the early thirteenth century and reached its operational apex in the Malleus Maleficarum (1487) progressively dismantled that accountability scheme. The modern American immunity stack — Imbler (1976), Stump (1978), Harlow (1982) — formalizes the dismantling through judicial construction of 42 U.S.C. § 1983. The essay traces the genealogy and asks what the Sixth Amendment's accusatorial design was meant to protect against.